The Next American President: Reflections on Civil-Military Relations and California’s Political Awakening (1846-1848)

The article discusses the early stages of the next presidential campaign, with the Whig party looking for a military general to lead them. The writer, representing California, expresses opposition to selecting military or naval officers for civil positions, citing the dangers and anti-republican tendencies that arise from such appointments. The article emphasizes the negative effects of allowing military leaders to seek high civil posts based on their battlefield valor. California asserts its stance against choosing military or naval heroes for President, highlighting the importance of separating military and civil affairs.

The article titled "NEXT AMERICAN PRESIDENT" provides an insightful glimpse into the political sentiments of California during a pivotal moment in American history, likely during the mid-19th century. The piece reflects a critical stance against the growing trend of military figures aspiring to civil leadership roles, particularly in the context of the Whig party's strategies at the time.

Contextual Background
In the wake of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and the subsequent Gold Rush that saw California's rapid settlement and integration into American society, the political landscape was ripe for ambition and change. The Whig Party, which prided itself on promoting a platform rooted in economic modernization, internal improvements, and opposition to the dominance of the Democratic Party, began to seek military leaders to garner popular support. Notable figures, such as General Zachary Taylor, a war hero, became presidential candidates, illustrating the shifting dynamics of American political culture where military success was perceived to translate to civilian governance.

Analysis of the Text
The author, who identifies as a Californian, asserts an "unqualified opposition" to military figures being appointed to civil positions, including the presidency. This sentiment is rooted in a broader historical context of republican principles where the separation of military and civilian authority is deemed crucial. The article articulates this sentiment succinctly: "we claim our right to speak on the question, though not of age to vote," illustrating both a sense of urgency and a desire for agency in national discourse, despite the author’s own political disenfranchisement.

The conviction against military leadership permeates the piece as it states, “Heaven preserve us from such a choice!!” This emphatic plea underscores the prevailing anxiety regarding the consolidation of power among military figures—a fear evidently echoed throughout American history, notably in the founding debates about the role of military power in a democratic society. The allusion to “ambition and jealously of rival soldiers” highlights historical episodes of civil strife tied to military leadership, such as the civil wars in countries where militarists dominated governance.

In addition, the article references “the danger and injury arising from permitting these men to look to such offices as the reward of their valor in battle.” This reflects not only the immediate context of military ambitions post-war but also echoes historical lessons from Roman and other ancient republics where military leaders often sought to convert their martial acclaim into political power. The author argues strongly against this trend, stating that the “condition, past and present of the very country with which we are now at war” serves as a cautionary tale, revealing that a reliance on soldiers as civil leaders has led to instability.

Lastly, the conclusion reiterates this point with a declaration of a celebratory yet cautious attitude toward military heroes: “As a generous people, we will freely place the laurel of fame upon the brows of deserving heroes… but say nay to their farther aspirations.” This nuanced position reflects a desire to honor the contributions and sacrifices of military figures while simultaneously advocating for the preservation of civic integrity and democratic ideals—hallmarks of the republican ethos.

In summary, the article serves as both a local Californian critique of national political trends and a broader historical commentary on the implications of merging military success with civil governance. The fear and caution expressed in the text resonate with ongoing debates about leadership qualifications, governance, and the balance of military influence in civil affairs—issues that remain pertinent in contemporary political discourse.

The Next American President: Reflections on Civil-Military Relations and California’s Political Awakening (1846-1848)

Imagine living in a time when the very essence of democracy hangs in the balance, threatened by the seductive allure of military glory. In this moment, a distant land—California—began to voice its concerns about a precarious blend of military leadership and civil governance. The article titled "Next American President," published in **The Californian** newspaper from 1846 to 1848, unveils the intricacies of political ideology, national identity, and the escalating tension between military and civilian power during a pivotal chapter in American history.

In this blog post, we will delve into the article’s insights regarding the political landscape of the time, weaving its themes into contemporary conversations about leadership, patriotism, and the boundaries of military involvement in civilian affairs. Additionally, we’ll explore California's unique position as it navigated the evolving American political terrain, providing a lens through which to reflect on democracy and governance today.

The Context: California on the Brink

To fully grasp the significance of "Next American President," we must first set the scene. Mid-19th century California emerged as a land of uncertainty and immense potential. This remote frontier, home to determined gold miners, diverse Native American tribes, and Mexican ranchers, was embroiled in the upheaval of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). As borders shifted and allegiances changed, dreams of manifest destiny drew settlers from the East, eager to forge a new society out West.

Amidst this tumult, political alliances began to fracture along familiar rivalries, exacerbated by the weakening of the Whig Party. The article captures this environment, highlighting how discussions surrounding the impending presidential campaign were dominated by an unconventional recruitment strategy: seeking military generals fresh from the battlefield as presidential contenders.

The Whig Party and the Militarization of Politics

The Whigs, striving to reclaim their political clout, faced an uphill battle against a dominant Democratic Party. Yet they sought to redefine their strategy, and the article cuts to the heart of the matter. It notes a disturbing trend: military figures, beloved for their battlefield triumphs, were increasingly viewed as suitable candidates for political office.

"This party in opposition to the first article of their former faith...are seeking amongst the military, and those too, fresh from the field of their bloody glory, with naught else than their deeds in arms to support their pretensions."

This moment marks a critical turning point. The valor of military heroes began overshadowing the principles of civil governance, prompting the article to issue a stern critique. California’s voice, laden with democratic foresight, expressed apprehension about the risks presented by this trend—an echo that resonates all too clearly in our current political climate.

The Dangers of Military Ascendancy

At the core of the article lies a powerful warning against appointing military leaders to civilian roles. It raises essential questions about power, governance, and the integrity of democratic structures:

 "The settled, decided, and unqualified opposition of California...to the selection of any naval or military officer for filling a civil post in the land; from Chief Magistrate of the republic, down to a petty town constable."

During this tumultuous period, California's citizens, despite lacking the right to vote, asserted their entitlement to participate in discussions about national integrity and governance. Their concerns were rooted in historical precedents cautioning against a militarized political landscape—a reminder of the civil unrest and disarray that often follows.

Fast forward to today, and the relevance of these fears is palpable. The specter of military influence looms large, particularly as we navigate the complexities surrounding the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, where generals frequently transitioned into civilian political roles. California’s insights about military ambition reveal a persistent unease that mirrors ongoing debates about civil-military relations in our time.

Historical Precedents: History as a Guiding Light

The authors of the article deftly draw on historical context to enhance their arguments, emphasizing that the lessons of both ancient and modern civilizations caution against intertwining civil and military ambitions. In doing so, they urge readers to approach their present circumstances with a critical eye, informed by the weight of history:

“If we had not had the light of previous history, ancient and modern, to prove to us the danger and injury arising from permitting these men to look to such officers as the reward of their valor in battle..."

By invoking historical precedents, the article powerfully resonates with a populace weary of military authoritarianism, compelling them to think critically about their electoral choices. This reliance on historical wisdom sharply contrasts with today’s political discourse, where the lessons of the past often fall by the wayside in favor of populist movements drawn to the allure of military might.

California’s Unique Position

Fast forward to today, California stands as a vibrant voice in the discourse on political identity. Its rich tapestry of cultures and values has long made it a leader in progressivism and social justice movements. The sentiments echoed in **The Californian** in the 1840s, however, foreshadowed the consequences of political maladies that continue to resonate in contemporary society.

At that time, California was transitioning from a state marked by lawlessness and military overreach to a burgeoning hub for democracy, discourse, and civic engagement. The early rejection of military leaders as legitimate political candidates signifies a burgeoning democratic ethos prioritizing civilian governance—an inclination that, while historical, remains vital in today's political landscape.

Echoes of the Past in Today’s Political Landscape

The concerns raised in "Next American President" transcend the confines of history; they reverberate throughout the contemporary political matrix. The ongoing militarization of politics is a pressing theme, coming to the forefront during discussions of national security and military involvement in foreign policy.

Today’s political dialogue continues to wrestle with the legacy of military leadership, as foreign affairs intersect with domestic policies and electoral strategies. The cautionary tale of 1846 underscores past errors and hints at the cyclical nature of political rhetoric, serving as a timely reminder to remain vigilant against the encroachment of militarization in our governance.

Concluding Thoughts

The reflections encapsulated in "Next American President" serve as both historical artifacts and poignant meditations on enduring themes of democratic values, civil versus military authority, and the dynamic identity of America.

As we venture forward in our current landscape, we are invited to engage with the conversations initiated in the California press during this critical period. They implore us to ensure that our republic is guided by civic principles, not overshadowed by the allure of military bravado.

Hence, we are reminded of the profound wisdom conveyed by the authors of **The Californian**—a steadfast commitment to citizen-based governance remains the bedrock of democracy. This sentiment not only honors the struggles of the past but also shapes the continuing evolution of democratic ideals across America, urging us to safeguard against the enticements of militarization in our political realm.

Key Phrases:

1. 'Military Leadership vs. Civil Governance' - This highlights the tension between military and civil authority throughout history. For further reading, see this article on [Civil-Military Relations in a Democracy](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5787406/).

2. 'The Whig Party and Political Strategy' - This refers to the challenges faced by the Whig Party during the mid-19th century. For more information, see this overview of the [Whig Party](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Whig-Party) from Britannica.

3. 'Manifest Destiny and California' - This concept was crucial in shaping California's political landscape. For a deeper understanding, check out this article on [Manifest Destiny](https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/manifest-destiny).

4. 'Militarization of Politics' - This phrase encompasses the ongoing trend of military influence in politics. For further exploration, see this research on [The Militarization of American Politics](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jpolsci.26.3.0297).

5. 'Historical Precedents in Political Governance' - This discussion brings attention to historical warnings against combining military and political power. For more insights, refer to this book on [Political History and Civil-Military Relations](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/political-history-of-civilmilitary-relations/DA14EFB64C0447B48B160F56F63F6E30).

6. 'California's Political Awakening' - This phrase relates to California's evolving identity in the political sphere. For additional context, see this article about [California’s Political History](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/a-brief-history-of-california-politics-180976034/).

7. 'Civic Engagement and Democratic Values' - This highlights the importance of citizen participation in governance. For more on this topic, explore this article on [Civic Engagement and Democracy](https://www.campaigntv.com/the-civic-engagement-in-democracy) from CampaignTV.

**Citation**: The Californian

- NEXT AMERICAN PRESIDENT., 1847-10-20
https://cdnc.ucr.edu/ University of California Riverside Digital Newspaper Archive

Original Article:

We insert the following communication, although the writer is evidently same dozen years in advance of the political situation of the country...In papers late from home, we find the preliminaries for entering upon the next presidential campaign already on the carpet. The Whigs particularly, being quite busy in martialing their ranks and looking out for a popular general, to lead them on to battle. But what may surprise an American, for some years absent from his country;—this party in opposition to the first article of their former faith, and in opposition too, to the true genius and spirit of our republic, and its best welfare,—are seeking amongst the military, and those too, fresh from the field of their bloody glory, with naught else than their deeds in arms to support their pretensions, for their available man, to elevate to this high and responsible post. Since we, the people of California, in sure anticipation of soon becoming a part of the great confederation, have some interest in this matter; we claim our right to speak on the question, though not of age to vote.— And now that the reign of terror is over with us, and the Fouche police and gag law of our naval tyrants removed, we will speak;—and our first say in reference to national affairs and American principles, is to announce to the world and our country in particular, the settled, decided and unqualified opposition of California. now and henceforth, to the selection of any naval or military officer for filling a civil post in the land; from Chief Magistrate of the republic, down to a petty town constable. If we had not had the light of previous history, ancient and modern, to prove to us the danger and injury arising from permitting these men to look to such officers as the reward of their valor in battle;—late events on our own theatre of action in California; ought to open the eyes of all to the development of principles and acts of an anti-republican tendency, and the evil results which have flowed directly therefrom, by reason of certain U. S. officers conducting themselves here almost solely with an eye to win renown, in order to obtain as a reward, some high civil post at home;—and with one of those, a no less station than that of President of the nation. This mighty gasometer, however, was so fully and highly charged, through his self-generating process, that he has completely bursted up and been blown into fragments; so we dont much fear him. Military and naval heroes for President! Heaven preserve us from such a choice!! Look at the condition, past and present of the very country with which we are now at war, and where our generals are winning Iaurels, our foolish people tell them are suitable emblems for a civilian and statesman, and fit and entitle them, above all others, to claim the highest official posts on the list; and say who and what produces the most of her dissensions and civil wars, but the ambition and jealously of rival soldiers for these offices. We in this region have seen and felt enough of military and naval rule of late, to learn the entire unfitness (not to use a harsher expression.) of such men, for administring the civil affairs of state. As a generous people, we will freely place the laurel of fame upon the brows of deserving heroes, welcome in triumph the return of unstained victors, echo with loud plaudits their praises through the land, vote them in our legislative halls the thanks and treasures of the nation, but say nay to their farther aspirations. CALIFORNIA.

The Journey of Captain Watson: Military and Political Transition in California, 1847

 

The Journey of Captain Watson

A ship carrying despatches from the US Government for General Kearney and Commodore Shubrick arrived in San Francisco after a journey that included stops in Panama and Payta. Col. R. B. Mason also arrived with instructions to take command of military forces in California if necessary. The despatches included full powers for the organization of Civil Government. Other travelers from the US were also met along the way.

The article titled "CAPT. WATSON" provides a snapshot of a military and logistical operation that took place in the context of the Mexican-American War, specifically related to California during the mid-19th century. This piece illustrates the movement of military and civilian leaders and the challenges of communication across the Americas at that time.

Capt. Watson's voyage is noted as significant for delivering vital "despatches from our Government for General Kearney and Commodore Shubrick," indicating that it was a critical time for the U.S. military presence in California. The urgency of these dispatches is underscored by the timeline of Watson's travels, having "sailed from N. York, Nov. 12th in Brig Silvan" and experiencing various delays before ultimately arriving at San Francisco about two months later. His journey exemplifies the complexities and uncertainties of maritime travel in the 1840s, especially given that he was "detained there, waiting for conveyance till Dec. 25th."

The mention of Colonel R. B. Mason traveling the same route indicates the military's strategic focus on reinforcing its command in California. The quote stating Mason had "instructions to take the command of the Military forces in California, if Gen. Kearney had not arrived," not only highlights the importance of effective leadership in the region but also the impending uncertainty about the status of General Kearney, who was a key figure in the American campaign in California.

Furthermore, the phrase "the despatches we understand embody full powers for the organization of Civil Government" emphasizes the transition from military occupation to the establishment of civilian governance in California, which had significant implications for U.S. colonial ambitions and the integration of new territories after the war. This transition reflected broader themes of American expansionism and the imposition of federal governance over newly acquired lands.

Lastly, the encounter of Capt. Watson with Major Morris, Dr. Oakley, and Midshipman Jackson at Shagres perhaps points to the interconnected networks of military personnel during this period, highlighting the collaborative nature of these expeditions as various leaders operated under the same strategic objectives. This underscores not just individual journeys but the cumulative efforts of multiple actors in shaping the course of American history.

In summary, "CAPT. WATSON" serves as a brief yet informative account of key logistical activities during a transformative period in American history, revealing the intricacies of military communication, the challenges of governance in newly acquired territories, and the broader implications of U.S. expansionism in the 19th century.

Understanding the Journey of Captain Watson: A Historical Context of Military and Political Transition in California (1846-1848)

In 1846, the world teetered on the cusp of transformation, with California positioned at the forefront of pivotal military and political changes. An article titled "CAPT. WATSON," published in 'The Californian,' illuminates a key event from this tumultuous time, chronicling Captain Watson's journey. His odyssey serves as a powerful symbol of the shift from military governance to civil rule in California. By exploring Captain Watson's story, we uncover broader themes of authority, military command, and their enduring impact on California and, ultimately, the cultural landscape of America.

The Journey Begins

Captain Watson's critical mission commenced when he set sail from New York on November 12, 1846, aboard the Brig Silvan. His instructions were loaded with significance—dispatches from the U.S. government meant for Major General Stephen W. Kearney and Commodore John D. Sloat, both essential figures in the unfolding Mexican-American War. Kearney's role as the commander of U.S. forces in California highlighted the region's wealth in resources and strategic importance.

Watson’s voyage, however, was not without its challenges. After arriving in Panama on November 27, he encountered significant delays as he struggled to secure transportation to continue his expedition. Remaining stuck in Panama until December 25, Watson's experience reflects the logistical obstacles of the era and the complexities of long-distance military and political communication. Such hurdles starkly contrast the swiftness afforded by today's technological advancements, reminding us how far we've come in facilitating swift military coordination.

The article states, “the despatches we understand embody full powers for the organization of Civil Government.” This reference to civil governance marks a critical juncture in California's historical narrative. It signifies a transformative shift from overarching military jurisdiction to a structured, organized governance that would eventually cater to the evolving needs and aspirations of California's burgeoning population.

The Military Orders

Watson was not alone on his journey; Colonel R.B. Mason of the 1st Dragoons accompanied him, bearing equally urgent orders to assume command of military forces in California should General Kearney not arrive in time. This addition to the narrative unveils another layer of military hierarchy and the urgency with which the U.S. government approached its campaign in the region.

Here, the power dynamics reveal a changing landscape of military engagements during the Mexican-American War. The U.S. was not merely fighting for territory but actively laying the foundation for a new order. This urgent need for organized governance amid military action reflects a broader theme of American exceptionalism that took hold in the 19th century—a belief in the nation’s manifest destiny to expand and civilize.

The Encounter at Shagres

Captain Watson’s interactions with figures such as Major Morris, Dr. Oakley, and Midshipman Jackson during his journey to the United States underscore the interplay between military and civilian efforts in California. The collaboration between military leaders and civilian authorities marked the groundwork for an emerging governance structure.

This engagement emphasizes the necessity of collaboration to navigate the multifaceted challenges of establishing governance in a politically unstable and culturally diverse territory. Singular military authority proved inadequate; thus, the increasing involvement of civilian voices began to shape the identity and governance of California.

The Arrival at San Francisco

Captain Watson reached San Francisco on January 5, after enduring a grueling 39-day maritime journey from Payta. His arrival symbolizes not only perseverance but also the mounting opportunities that lay within the nascent city, which was on the verge of explosive growth thanks to the forthcoming Gold Rush of 1849. This arduous journey serves as a microcosm for many adventurers who followed, drawn by dreams of prosperity and a fresh start in the uncharted lands of California.

The Gold Rush would soon flood California with settlers, traders, and dreamers, fundamentally altering the state's demographics. The seamless transition from military control to civilian governance was essential in addressing the complexities brought about by the rapid influx of population, including law enforcement, public health, and infrastructure development. This newly established framework ultimately laid the groundwork for California's eventual statehood in 1850.

The Larger Context: Impact on California’s Political Landscape

The dispatch Captain Watson carried symbolized more than just military orders; it represented the future governance of a state rich with competition, conflict, and diversity. The implications of these communications extended far beyond military necessity; they illustrated the U.S. government's commitment to securing a foothold on the West Coast.

California's broad ethnic makeup—including Native American populations, Mexican citizens, and emerging American settlers—complicated the implementation of governance. The subsequent arrival of various military leaders and officers was instrumental in navigating legal disputes, forging policy, and restoring order amidst chaos. These historical interactions forged a path toward population consensus, sustainable local governance, and the formation of community organizations.

As civil governance was established, it was crucial for the development of the infrastructure necessary for economic growth and stability. Local laws, land ownership, educational systems, and individual rights were defined during this critical period—laying a legacy that continues to inform contemporary policies surrounding governance and land rights.

Reflection on Governance and Military Orders

One key takeaway from Captain Watson's narrative is the transient nature of authority during times of military conflict. The delegation of responsibilities to military leaders emphasizes the often blurry lines between military command and civilian governance. This confluence of authority remains salient in modern discussions about governance, particularly regarding national security and civil liberties—where striking a balance is imperative.

Furthermore, Watson’s journey serves as a historical case study emphasizing the vital role of communication and logistics. The delays he experienced in Panama remind us that even well-laid plans can falter when infrastructure fails—a lesson that resonates in our contemporary world of rapid communication.

A Legacy of Transition

Captain Watson’s mission foreshadowed the essential shift from military governance to civil organization that underpins modern California. The resulting structures not only transformed local governance but also shaped society at large, leading to a complex interplay of cultural, social, and political elements that define California today.

In the contemporary landscape, California stands as a powerhouse of technology and culture. The synergies of ideas, industries, and peoples resulting from this historical transition have fostered innovative environments that drive global economies. Reflecting on Captain Watson’s expedition and California's rapid evolution is a reminder that transitions often give rise to new opportunities and identities—an enduring narrative for any territory navigating change.

Conclusion: Looking Back to Move Forward

Captain Watson’s journey captures a pivotal moment in California’s storied history—a testament to the navigation of disruption and the unyielding spirit of those who endeavored to forge new governance. As we examine this period through the lens of the present, we recognize that the foundations established by our predecessors continue to shape our current political and social landscapes.

Embracing the lessons of the past will be crucial as we confront current challenges in governance, equity, and representation. The narrative surrounding Captain Watson transcends mere historical account; it serves as a catalyst for dialogue on how we construct futures—actively learning from our history's transitions that resonate within today's conversations. The ongoing evolution of California's identity is a testament to the complexities of change, offering insights, cautionary tales, and inspiration for generations still to come.

Key Phrases:

1. **"Military Governance to Civil Rule in California"** - This transition significantly impacted California’s political landscape. For further reading, see "The Emergence of Civil Government in California" from [California History](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130502).

2. **"Mexican-American War"** - Understanding this conflict is crucial for contextualizing the changes in governance. For more about the war's implications, refer to "The Mexican-American War, 1846-1848" from [U.S. History](https://www.ushistory.org/us/24.asp).

3. **"Logistical Obstacles of the Era"** - The transportation challenges faced during this historical period warrant deeper examination. Check out "The Importance of Logistics in the U.S. Civil War" also applicable to earlier military movements from [Logistics Management](https://www.logisticsmgmt.com/article/importance_of_logistics_in_the_civil_war).

4. **"Collaboration between Military Leaders and Civilian Authorities"** - This cooperation played a vital role in governance. For insights on civil-military relations, explore "Civil-Military Relations" in [The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions](https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199548483.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199548483).

5. **"Gold Rush of 1849"** - The demographic shifts from the Gold Rush had lasting effects on California. For an overview, see "The Gold Rush of 1849" from [History](https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/gold-rush).

6. **"Ethnic Makeup of California"** - Investigating the diverse populations in California can provide a richer context. For further exploration, read "California's Diversity" from [Calisphere](https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/diversity/).

7. **"Transition from Military Control to Civilian Governance"** - This transition serves as a precedent for governance in wartime. For patterns in government transitions, see "Transitional Justice in Divided Societies" from [Harvard Law Review](https://harvardlawreview.org/2020/03/transitional-justice-in-divided-societies/).

8. **"Authority During Times of Military Conflict"** - The blurred lines of authority challenge modern governance. For detailed examination, refer to "The Role of Military in Civil Affairs" in [Military Review](https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/Military-Review/Archives/English-Edition-Archives/2017/January-February-2017/The-Role-of-the-Military-in-Civil-Affairs).

9. **"Communication and Logistics"** - Lessons from the past highlight the importance of communication systems. For insights, see "The Role of Communication in Logistics" from [SCM World](https://www.scmworld.com/research-logistics-communication).

10. **"California's Rapid Evolution"** - The continued evolution of California's identity is an ongoing narrative. For contemporary discussions, check "California on the Rise" from [The California Economic Summit](https://cafwd.org/news/california-on-the-rise/).

**Citation**: The Californian

- CAPT. WATSON., 1847-02-20
https://cdnc.ucr.edu/ University of California Riverside Digital Newspaper Archive

Original Article:

. . .who has brought out despatches from our Government for General Kearney and Commodore Shubrick, sailed from N. York, Nov. 12th in Brig Silvan, arrived at Panama on the 27th of the same month, was detained there, waiting for conveyance till Dec. 25th, when he departed in an English steamer and fell in with the store ship Erie on Jan. 3d at Payta—sailed from thence on the 5th and arrived at San Francisco in 39 days. Col. R. B. Mason of the 1st Dragoons came by the same route, with instructions to take the command of the Military forces in California, if Gen. Kearney had not arrived. The despatches we understand embody full powers for the organization of Civil Government. Capt. Watson met at Shagres Major Morris, Dr Oakley and Midshipman Jackson on their way to the United States.

To the Editor of the Californian, July 7th, 1846

 

The article discusses the lack of defined laws and government structure in California under United States occupation, specifically criticizing the absence of legislation to guide the actions of local magistrates. The author questions how individuals can be expected to uphold laws without clear guidelines and expresses concern that the current situation may lead to discord and weaken the authority of the legal system.

A 19th-Century Struggle for Law and Order

The original article titled "TO THE EDITOR OF THE CALIFORNIAN" provides a critical examination of the governance and legal framework in California during the early stages of American occupation following the Mexican-American War. Written in 1847, the piece reflects not only the complexities of transitioning authority and the legal uncertainties that ensued but also the deep anxieties of residents regarding law and order in a newly annexed territory.

The article begins by noting the one-year anniversary of U.S. presence in California and underscores a significant shift in governance with General Stephen W. Kearny's appointment as governor. Kearny’s proclamation from March 1, 1847, is highlighted, where he voiced his intent “to take charge of the civil government of California.” This intention, however, appears to have lagged, as the author expresses disappointment that "not one single law has been enacted to meet the necesity of any case." This absence of clear laws raises questions about the legitimacy and functionality of local governance.

A critical theme of the article is the lack of familiar legal frameworks for the residents. The author points out the ambiguity surrounding laws inherited from Mexican governance, stating, “not one single law, supposed to exist in the territory… has yet been defined.” The implications of this legal vacuum are profound. Without an established legal code, officials, such as the Alcalde (a local magistrate), wield unchecked power, which can lead to arbitrary governance. The author articulately expresses concern over this state of affairs: "the Alcalde here seems to be the law, THE WHOLE LAW and NOTING BUT THE LAW." This suggests a precarious situation where personal judgment could overshadow due process, effectively endangering the very peace that the U.S. government professed to preserve.

The article also grapples with the ethical and operational questions of law enforcement: “If we break them, under these circumstances are we responsible?” The author anticipates the confusion and potential chaos that could arise from conflicting and unclear legal guidelines, questioning the very foundation of authority and civic responsibility in this nascent government.

In examining the broader historical context, this article illustrates the turbulent transition following the conquest of California by U.S. forces in 1846-1847, during which tensions were high not only between different racial and ethnic groups but also amid shifting legal traditions. The integration of California into the U.S. legal framework was tenuous, and the absence of a clear governing structure highlighted the complexities of American expansionism during this period.

The concerns laid out in the article resonate with the broader narrative of American governance in contested territories and reflect the challenges of enforcing order in a newly acquired land characterized by a mix of American settlers, Mexican residents, and indigenous populations. As California moved toward statehood, these foundational governance failures would have lasting implications, foreshadowing the intense legal and social strife that would characterize the region's development in the years to follow.

In summary, this piece serves as a vital historical document, capturing the uncertainty and apprehension surrounding governance in early California. It emphasizes the need for a concrete legal framework in maintaining order and reflects the broader tensions of a society navigating the aftermath of colonial conquest.

The Legal Void in California: A 19th-Century Struggle for Law and Order

As the United States expanded westward in the mid-19th century, the period between 1846 and 1848 marked a significant turning point filled with military and political upheaval. One of the most illuminating reflections of this transitional moment is captured in a letter published in *The Californian*. This poignant correspondence, addressed to the editor, not only reveals the turmoil created by the absence of established legal frameworks in California following U.S. military occupation but also illustrates deep concerns about governance, the authority of local magistrates, and the specter of lawlessness threatening social cohesion.

In this blog post, we'll delve into the claims made in this letter, contextualize California's acquisition, and examine how these historical dynamics resonate with contemporary discussions surrounding governance, law, and society. By shedding light on such historical documents, we can better understand the persistent legal challenges that societies face during times of change.

Contextualizing California's Acquisition

To grasp the implications of the letter, we must first understand the context of California's incorporation into the United States, a process deeply tied to the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848. This conflict arose from various issues, including territorial disputes and the U.S. ambition for westward expansion. When General Stephen W. Kearny led U.S. forces into California in 1846, he quickly established a military presence and, by early March 1847, boldly declared California under U.S. governance. In doing so, he expressed a commitment to foster order, stating his "duty and pleasure" to comply with directives from higher authorities while urging Californians to participate in maintaining "order and tranquility."

Despite Kearny's noble intentions, challenges loomed large in creating a cohesive legal structure. The letter penned by "LEX" conveys palpable frustration over the absence of explicit laws guiding civil governance. This critical omission underscores the precariousness of a system reliant solely on military authority—a scenario ripe for discord within the community.

Concerns Over Legal Authority and Governance

The author of the letter zeroes in on the unsettling reality that, five months post-Kearny's proclamation, no laws had been enacted to meet California's pressing needs. The stark assertion, "not one single law has been enacted to meet the necessity of any case," both indicts the military administration's governance and serves as a clarion call for clarity and order. By pointing out that "the Alcalde here seems to be the law, the whole law and nothing but the law," the letter raises profound questions about the role of local leaders in a legal vacuum.

The Alcalde, a title borrowed from Spanish colonial law, wielded considerable influence but lacked explicit authority without formal legal guidelines. This predicament mirrors broader themes found in fledgling democracies, where tensions between authority, governance, and individual rights come to a head. In the absence of clear legal frameworks, grievances easily fester, undermining community trust and stability.

The Implications of Legal Ambiguity

The legal ambiguity articulated in the letter introduces a critical dilemma: if laws remain undefined, how can citizens be held accountable for their actions? The author's inquiry—"If we break them [the laws], under these circumstances, are we responsible? If so, what is the penalty…?"—captures widespread anxiety about justice and moral accountability amid an unstable legal landscape.

Furthermore, the imperative for community members to act according to the moral principle of "doing unto others as we would wish to be done by" illuminates a desire for ethical conduct within an environment lacking clear laws. This invocation serves as a poignant reminder that, while moral values exist, they require a robust legal framework to be upheld in practice.

Social Dynamics and the Role of Community

The letter also sheds light on the social dynamics within a diverse population grappling with the complexities of American governance. With a rich tapestry of cultures—including Native Americans, Mexican settlers, and newly arrived Americans—California presented a unique challenge in establishing cohesive governance.

Military leaders like Gen. Kearny and Col. Mason faced the daunting task of reconciling conflicting legal principles while striving to maintain peace and order. However, the historical record reveals that early governance was fraught with frustrations from both military and civilian spheres. These tensions would shape social dynamics well into California’s period of statehood.

The interplay between imposed foreign laws and existing governance systems further complicated this landscape. Without a clear legal framework, underlying tensions among diverse groups risked eroding the peace that military governance initially sought to establish. The letter serves as a cautionary tale: just as military forces may maintain order through force, enduring justice and peace depend on the establishment of legitimate legal principles that resonate with all of California's communities.

The Evolution of Legal Systems

"LEX's" letter resonates with ongoing conversations about the evolution of legal systems and their vital role in societal development. Historical patterns reveal that societies frequently grapple with moments where new governance structures clash with entrenched systems of authority. California's situation mirrored experiences faced by other regions undergoing transitions, where military authority temporarily eclipsed civil rights.

As time passed, the absence of clear law enforcement grew increasingly critical. The elevation of local magistrates without comprehensive legal definitions raised alarm over potential judicial abuses and arbitrary decision-making.

Central to these reflections is the realization that the absence of defined laws can lead to disillusionment and distrust. When individuals lack faith in the systems meant to protect them, societal cohesion begins to erode.

Lessons for Modern Governance

The mid-19th century challenges in California yield valuable lessons for contemporary governance, particularly in regions undergoing significant socio-economic and political shifts. The central concerns articulated in the letter—authority, governance, and legal clarity—are as relevant now as they were then.

Today’s rapid changes often instigate similar uncertainties, whether stemming from shifts in demographics, migration trends, or technological evolution. The call for explicit legal definitions and community accountability reflects ongoing discussions about the need for adaptable and transparent laws that resonate with a dynamic populace.

Moreover, the tension between military authority and civil liberties remains a contentious topic. The challenge of balancing civil rights with public safety persists for policymakers at local, national, and global levels. By examining past struggles, we can glean valuable insights for creating robust legal frameworks that uphold the rights of diverse populations while navigating modern complexities.

The Impact of Legal Knowledge on Civic Engagement

An essential aspect emphasized by the letter is the role of legal knowledge in fostering civic engagement. As individuals grappled with their entitlements (or the lack thereof) and the intricacies of authority, understanding legal systems became crucial.

In our contemporary society, where civic engagement is often gauged through democratic participation, the need for accessible legal knowledge remains paramount. Encouraging awareness of one’s rights and responsibilities is vital for cultivating accountable governance. Educational institutions, civic groups, and community organizations can take a pivotal role in promoting legal literacy, empowering individuals to advocate for their rights and effectuate meaningful change within society.

Conclusion

The concerns articulated in the letter to *The Californian* transcend mere historical reflection; they evoke timeless questions pertinent to the evolution of legal systems and governance. The struggles faced by Californians during their transition to American governance resonate with ongoing dialogues about authority, community trust, and the law’s role in nurturing order and justice.

As we navigate our current legal landscapes filled with complexities, we must remember that the challenges of 19th-century California share striking parallels with today’s quests for clarity, accountability, and equitable governance. By studying historical documents like this letter, we honor the legacy of those who fought for order and rule while gaining vital insights into our ongoing pursuit of justice and harmonious community life.

Key Phrases:

1. 'California's incorporation into the United States' - This involves the historical context of territorial changes and governance models. For further reading, see the book *Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right* by Anders Stephanson [Link](https://www.amazon.com/Manifest-Destiny-American-Expansionism-Empire/dp/1566631390).

2. 'Mexican-American War of 1846-1848' - A significant conflict that reshaped territories and national borders. For a comprehensive overview, refer to the article "The Mexican-American War" from [U.S. Department of State](https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/mexican-american-war).

3. 'Military governance and civil rights' - The implications of military rule on local populations during transitions. For an analysis, see "Military Rule in California: The Impact of the Mexican-American War" in [California History](https://scholarworks.umb.edu/cah/vol11/iss1/3).

4. 'Role of Alcaldes in California's legal vacuum' - The transition of authority and legal roles in a changing society. For further reading, see "The Alcalde System in Early California and the Implications for a Provincial Archive" from [California State Library](https://www.library.ca.gov/california-history/early-california-facts/alcalde-system/).

5. 'Legal ambiguity and community trust' - The relationship between law clarity and societal stability. For insights, refer to the article "The Rule of Law and Trust in the Legal System" from [Brookings Institution](https://www.brookings.edu/research/what-is-the-rule-of-law/).

6. 'Diverse populations and governance challenges' - How varied cultural backgrounds impact legal systems and community cohesion. A relevant source is *Cultural Diversity and Legal Systems in the United States* by Susan L. Smith [Link](https://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Diversity-Legal-Systems-United/dp/1629481357).

7. 'Civic engagement and legal knowledge' - The importance of understanding legal systems for active participation in governance. For further reading, see "Legal Empowerment and Civic Engagement" from [World Bank](https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/04/18/legal-empowerment-and-civic-engagement).

8. 'Lessons for modern governance' - Drawing parallels between historical and contemporary legal frameworks. For a broader discussion, refer to “Governance in the 21st Century” from [The Brookings Institution](https://www.brookings.edu/research/21st-century-governance-ideas-and-implications/).

**Citation**: The Californian
- TO THE EDITOR OF THE CALIFORNIAN., 1847-07-17
https://cdnc.ucr.edu/ University of California Riverside Digital Newspaper Archive

Original Article:

Mr. Editor,—The United States have now occupied and preserved this territory one year. During the last five months has been held in quiet possession by their forces. General Kearny soon after assuming his duties as governor, declared in a proclamation dated March 1st 1847, that, the President of the United States had instructed him to "take charge of the civil government of California" and that he entered "upon his duties with an ardent desire to promote" as far as he was able, the interests of the country. In addition, he says, "it will be his duty and his pleasure to comply with those instructions; he calls upon them all" the people of California "to exert themselves in preserving order and tranquility, in promting harmony and concord, and in maintaining the authority and efficiency of the laws." Gen. Kearny having abdicated and Col. Mason having stept into his place, we would particularly call the attention of His Excellency to the fact, that nothing has as yet been done to maintain "the authority and efficiency of the laws," nearly five months have elapsed since this declaration was made, and yet, not one single law has been enacted to meet the necesity of any case; and in order to enable the authorities to give efficiency to the law, not one single law, supposed to exist in the territory, enacted by the legislature of Mexico, or by the junta of this department, has yet been defined. It strikes us this is a most unfortunate circumstance. We had always thought that the inferior magistrates were responsible to some higher power, having jurisdiction over their acts, to remedy evils occasioned by their want of knowledge, or hasty decisions. But it seems the Alcalde here seems to be the law, THE WHOLE LAW and NOTING BUT THE LAW. Is there no law, defining their duties, their powers; If their decisions are to be binding, these if indiscreet or imtemperate [intemperate] would be more likely to promote discord, than harmony, would tend rather to destroy than to preserve the present tranquility and would go far, very far, to weaken the authority and efficiency of the laws—what laws? Will any one tell us what laws we are invited to maintain? How are we to maintain them efficiently, without knowing what they are? If we break them, under these circumstances are we responsible? If aye, what is the penalty—what is the quality and duration of the punishment? These are reflections natural to us all and we hope some temporary construction of the laws will be made to enable us "to do unto others as we would wish to be done by." "LEX."

The California of Progress: A Perspective on Safety from External Danger, Military Influence, and the Evolution of River Mining in the Mid-19th Century

 The California of Progress: A Perspective on Safety from External Danger, Military Influence, and the Evolution of River Mining in the Mid-19th Century

The article discusses the importance of external danger in directing national conduct, leading nations to sacrifice civil and political rights for security. It also highlights the success of organized river mining in California due to a regular system of working, as well as the increasing importance of river mining in contributing to the state's wealth. Additionally, it mentions the applicability of Holloway's Ointment and Pills to various disorders in different climates.

The provided article encompasses themes that highlight the tension between security and liberty, the dynamics of military power, and the evolution of economic practices in the context of California river mining. This multifaceted discussion offers valuable insights into the social and political anxieties of the time, along with a reflection on emerging economic realities.

 Analysis of Security and Freedom

One of the major arguments presented in the article is the notion that “safety from external danger is the most powerful director of national conduct.” This statement sets the stage for a broader discourse on the impact of warfare and national security on civil liberties. The author points out that even a “vehement love of liberty” can be compromised when confronted with the conditions of war, leading to the “violent destruction of life and property.” This brings to light a fundamental conflict that nations face: the balance between maintaining liberty and ensuring security.

The assertion that “the nature of war to increase the executive, at the expense of the legislative authority” underscores the concern that prolonged conflict may lead to authoritarianism. As states fortify themselves against perceived threats—especially in a fragmented national landscape—there emerges a tendency to invest power in executive branches, weakening democratic processes. This notion reflects the historical fears post-American Revolution about how quickly a democratic state could devolve into tyranny in the face of external pressures.

Furthermore, it is suggested that “small States... under vigorous governments, and with the assistance of disciplined armies, have often triumphed over large States.” Here, the article accurately reflects the geopolitical strategies during the late 18th century, where smaller states achieved victories against larger empires through innovative military organization and strategic alliances, a concept familiar to historians studying the rise of European powers.

Evolution of Economic Practices

Shifting perspective, the article also delves into California's burgeoning river mining industry. The narrative highlights how earlier attempts at mining often faltered due to the lack of structured planning. The phrase “previously a number of men would get together... get ready... before they could realize a dollar, a freshet would come” illustrates the chaos and randomness that characterized early mining efforts. This attention to detail speaks to a historical trend where industrial and economic success demands systematic approaches rather than chaotic, ad hoc methods.

The success stories highlighted later in the article, such as those who “organized into companies, and commenced a regular system of river-working upon a permanent basis,” reflect the burgeoning capitalist ethos taking root in America during the mid-19th century. The article suggests that the harnessing of labor and capital with a strategic approach led to newfound wealth, a precursor to the industrial revolution that would transform the United States.

The phrase “the working man—the man of muscle and sinew, of energy and determination—finds his place now, and there he stays” exudes an ethos of hard work and reliability that defined the American spirit during this period. It demonstrates a societal valuation of perseverance and diligence, traits that became synonymous with the American worker.

Conclusion

In synthesis, the article presents a historical snapshot of the interplay between state security, civil liberties, and economic innovation in the context of 18th and 19th-century America. The author candidly discusses the implications of military power and warns of the encroachment of despotism in the wake of instability. Concurrently, it documents the transformation of economic practices in the mining sector, signifying a shift toward systematic and collective labor strategies that would become characteristic of the rapidly industrializing nation. These themes resonate remarkably well with the evolving identity of the United States as it navigated its unique historical challenges.

The California of Progress: A Perspective on Safety from External Danger, Military Influence, and the Evolution of River Mining in the Mid-19th Century

The Enlightenment, with its fervent embrace of reason, progress, and individual rights, laid the philosophical groundwork for modern democratic societies. Yet, as the 19th century ushered in an era of interconnectedness and industrial advancement, nations found themselves grappling with a perplexing paradox. The longing for liberty and the pressing need for safety emerged as competing forces, each steering societies toward distinct forms of governance. This tug-of-war is vividly illustrated in a reflective piece from *The Californian* newspaper, covering the tumultuous years from 1846 to 1848, which anticipates the rise of military influence while capturing the early frenzies of California’s burgeoning economic landscape, particularly through mining.

The article asserts that "safety from external danger is the most powerful director of national conduct," a statement that resonates with both irony and foresight. In a world riddled with conflicts—both internal and external—nations often found themselves torn between an ardent affection for liberty and an instinctual drive for self-preservation. In their search for security, populations frequently gravitated toward centralized authority, forsaking personal and political rights in the process.

The Security vs. Liberty Dilemma

As we delve deeper into the article's analysis, we encounter a crucial observation: "even the ardent love of liberty will, after a time, give way to [the] dictates [of external threats]." This cautionary foresight echoes throughout history, reminding us of the rise of totalitarian regimes, often justified by the need for protection against perceived dangers. Such military influence tends to reshape governance structures, amplifying executive power while undermining legislative authority.

In the face of mounting pressures, small states or confederacies felt compelled to bolster their military capabilities. The article notes, "the nature of war to increase the executive, at the expense of legislative authority." This insight perfectly aligns with our understanding that concentrated power engenders a dominant executive branch—a dynamic that reverberates across governments worldwide, especially in today’s democratic systems where civil liberties must be diligently safeguarded against encroachment.

 Historical Context of Military Establishments

The concerns articulated in *The Californian* reflect the widespread anxieties of 19th-century America, particularly in the lead-up to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). This conflict, spurred by expansionist dreams and the ideology of Manifest Destiny, intensified debates surrounding military influence within civil society. Local populations, wary of internal dissent or foreign incursion, often supported strengthened military establishments, even at the cost of their liberties. This dilemma transcends mere theory; it took form in military-related policies and the early implementations of draft laws, resonating through subsequent conflicts, including the Civil War and the World Wars.

The Transition in Mining Operations

Amid the rising tide of military fears and the gradual acceptance of centralized authority, a different—and more hopeful—narrative emerged from California, marked by economic opportunity, particularly in river mining. The latter half of the article reveals how mining operations transitioned from chaotic wasters of labor to organized and systematic enterprises. This shift not only mirrored California's growing economy but served as an anchor for a society wrestling with the pressures of military governance.

Initially, the article recounts how commonly attempted mining practices faltered: hastily formed teams often watched their investments wash away in natural disasters. However, a turning point came when "a few quiet and observing men who had watched the failures of their predecessors... organized into companies." This story of human adaptability and perseverance showcases how, through systematic changes, societies can emerge resilient from chaos and uncertainty.

The Renaissance of River Mining

The success stories that grew from California's river mining set the stage for a seismic economic transformation. "These are the men to work river diggings where labor, patience, and perseverance are required," the article eloquently states, encapsulating the spirit and potential of a vibrant industry. The shift toward structured operations redefined labor dynamics, empowering individuals and catalyzing broader economic progress. As optimism and innovation took root, California's social fabric began to evolve, giving rise to an economy that was intricately connected to, yet distinct from, the political and military realities of its time.

This newfound prosperity was underscored by the rise of companies committed to rigorous mining practices, signaling a dramatic change. The article claims, "Now we begin to find out that, in the beds and on the bars of nearly all the rivers in the interior, golden harvests are to be reaped by the steady laborer." This captures the essence of the Californian Gold Rush—a tale of idealism intertwined with the acknowledgment that hard work leads to success. It underscores the vital connection between individual effort and economic advancement, a lesson that reverberates through American history.

 Modern Parallels and Lessons from the Past

The intertwining narratives of military influence alongside the evolution of river mining paint a rich tapestry reflecting the ongoing balance between liberty, security, and progress. Today, as modern societies confront similar dilemmas surrounding national security and individual rights, we ought to reflect on the lessons gleaned from this historical period.

The fabric of our democracies has been woven with the experiences of those who came before us. Societies are continually faced with the challenge of addressing external threats while fervently advocating for individual and collective rights. Contemporary issues, such as government surveillance justified under the banner of national security or military interventions abroad, echo the timeless question: How much freedom are we willing to sacrifice in the name of safety? The insights gleaned from this article serve as a lens through which we might critically examine these dynamics, reminding us that democracy—like mining—requires careful management and strategic foresight to realize its full potential in safeguarding our liberties.

 Conclusion: The Path Forward

Ultimately, this article serves as a poignant reminder of the historical tensions that persist in the balance of power between governing bodies and the populace. The interwoven themes of security, civil liberties, and economic opportunity resonate across eras, urging us to remain vigilant in our philosophical and political discussions.

As we reflect on the legacy of *The Californian* and similar periodicals from the 1840s, it becomes evident that the interplay between military influence and economic growth continues to shape our national narrative. By examining this complex dynamic, modern society can navigate contemporary challenges with a deeper understanding rooted in historical context—ensuring that our pursuit of safety does not overshadow our enduring struggle for freedom. As we ponder the transformative events that engineered California's evolution during that pivotal time, we may well unravel insights that guide us toward a future where liberty stands resilient against the tides of power and the constant specter of external threats.

**Key Phrases:**

1. **"The Enlightenment and modern democratic societies"** - For further research on how the Enlightenment influenced democracy, check out this article on [The Enlightenment and Modern Democracy](https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment).

2. **"Safety from external danger vs. individual rights"** - For insights into this complex debate, see the article on [The Balance Between Security and Liberty](https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/balance-between-liberty-security).

3. **"Rise of totalitarian regimes"** - To explore the factors that lead to totalitarianism, refer to the piece on [Understanding Totalitarianism](https://www.bbc.co.uk/revolution/sections/totalitarianism.html).

4. **"Military influence in civilian governance"** - An overview of this phenomenon can be found in the article on [Civil-Military Relations](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jcivmilrelat.4.1.120).

5. **"Manifest Destiny and the Mexican-American War"** - For a historical context on Manifest Destiny, view this resource on [Manifest Destiny: A Brief History](https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/manifest-destiny).

6. **"Military-related policies and draft laws in American history"** - For an exploration of draft laws in the US, see the overview provided in this article on [US Draft History](https://www.archives.gov/research/military/draft).

7. **"Transition of mining operations in California"** - For a detailed look at this transition, refer to the article on [California Gold Rush Mining Techniques](https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/gold-rush).

8. **"Economic transformation through river mining"** - To gain insights into economic changes during the Gold Rush, consult this research on [Economic Impact of the California Gold Rush](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/gold-rush-economics/).

9. **"Government surveillance and national security"** - For current discussions on surveillance and civil liberties, see the report by [ACLU on Surveillance Technology](https://www.aclu.org/issues/national-security/privacy-and-surveillance).

10. **"Interplay between military influence and economic growth"** - To understand this dynamic in a historical context, read the article on [Military and Economic Growth](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305750X16001989).

**Citation**: The Californian
- a just one. Safety from, 1856-11-22
https://cdnc.ucr.edu/ University of California Riverside Digital Newspaper Archive

Original Article:

external danger is the most powerful director of national conduct. Even the ardent love of liberty " ill, after a time, give way to its dictates. The violent destruction of life and property incident to war, the continual effort and alarm attendant on a state of continual danger, will compel nations the most attached to liberty to resort for repose and security to institutions which have a tendency to destroy their civil and political rights. To be ! more safe, they would, at length, become willing to run the risk of being less free. The institutions chiefly alluded to are standing armies, and the corresponding appendages of military establishments. Standing armies, it is said, arc not provided against in the new constitution, and it is thence inferred that they would exist under it. This inference, from the very form of the proposition, is at least problematical and uncertain, lint standing armies, it may be replied, must inevitably result from a dissolution of the confederacy. Frequent war and constant preparation, will infallibly pro- ! duee them. The weaker States or confederacies would first have recourse to them, to put themselves oil an equality with their more potent neighbors. They would endeavor to supply the inferiority of population and resources by a more regular and effective system of defense, by disciplined troops, and by fortifications. They would, at the same time, be obliged to strengthen the executive arm of government ; in doing which, their constitutions would require a progressive direction towards monarchy. It is tlie nature of war to increase the executive, at the expense of the legislative authority. The expeditients which have been mentioned would soon give the States or confederacies that made use of them a superiority over their neighbors. Small States, or Slates of less natural strength, under vigorous governments, and with the assistance of disciplined armies, have often triumphed over large States, or States of greater natural strength, which have been destitute of these advantages. Neither the pride nor the safety of the important States or confcdiaeies would permit them long to submit to this mortifying and adventitious superiority. They would quickly resort to means similar to those by which it has been effected, to reinstate themselves in their lost pre-eminence. Thus we should, in a little time, see established in every part of this country the same engines of despotism which have been the scourge of the Old World. This, at least, would lie the natural course of things ; and our reasonings will be likely to lie just, in proportion ns they are nceom- ' moduted to tins standard. These are not vague inferences, deduced from speculative defects in a constitution, the whole power of | which is lodged in the bauds of the people, or their representatives or deligates ; they | arc solid conclusions, drawn from the natural and necessary progress of human affairs. —AI ere. v tier 1 la m ithn. ltiviin Mixing.— During the season, now about to close, the river mines of California have paid better than at any previous time The reason of this is obvious ; it is because ' capital and labor have not been applied uselessly, but companies have been formed, ami a regular system of working adopted. For- | iucrly a number of men would get together, form a company, expend what money they had in purchasing a llume and digiuga race 1 —get ready, as they called it, for work, and before the,, could realize a dollar, n freshet would Come, - iop av.ay their dam ami their Hume, iV'-neruiiy sluice-boxes of about twelve by sixteen inches,) ami away would go their all money and time and they would have : lo seek some oliu-r locality where they could make a living, lienee river mining fell into disrepute —the cost was more than the produce ; the difficulties of opening claims insurmountable, and in short it would not pay. Ibit, after a while, a few quiet and observing men who had watched the failures of their predecos .ms, and traced out tlie cause--, organized into companies, and commenced a regular system of l iver-working upon a permanent basis. They built solid stone dams, fixed and immovable ; they dug wide and deep races, that could not be choked up ; they built large and expensive Humes, and placed them upon a sure foundation. The til'st. vein' they made nothing, and everybody hmghed at them ; the second year they imule u living, nothing more, and the knowing ones grinned again. This season they have made fortunes in numerous instances, and now, those who laughed once laugh no more, but are trying to do likewise. This is the result of steady perseverance and indomitable energy, of cool planning and steady carrying out. Now, we see that river mining is important, and will become more so every year. We begin to find out that, in the beds and on the bars of nearly all the rivers in the int> riur, golden harvests are to lie reaped by the steady laborer.— Shiftless men, who are baulked by ti itles, it is true, work a day, make nothing, curse their luck, and leave, to try some other place, with the same result. These men dei serve neither more nor less than they get, for they are worthless. Hut the working man — tlie man of muscle ami sinew, of energy and determination, finds his place now, and there he .stays- sometimes lucky, and soine1 times unlucky, but on the whole, successful. These are the uieu to work river diggings ' where labor, patience and persevere. nee art required. The other class we have described will undoubtedly Hud employment about the rim rock in placer diggings, (.’reviving with a shell, and “ panning out for grub.'’ However, it is an undeniable fact, that during the j last two years river mining has vastly increased in importance, and a vast amount of capital and labor are now being laid out upon interior rivers, and wo hear of large rivers that are to lm turned from their beds and conducted in Humes of sufficient capacity to carry the water during the entire year. If this can he accomplished tlie rivers will be worked winter and summer. The most magnificent schemes have been projected, and with a fair prospect of realization, so (hut it is pretty safe to consider the river mines as one of the most permanent and important contributors to the wealth of the State.- »S'. I'. Chronicle. llou.owAv’.s Ointment a.m» I’tu.s.— The (applicability of these extraordinary medicaments to the disorders of all climates, render*: them indi-pcii'ubje to all who journey